Review of enzyme catalysis in sustainable biofuel production: A comparative study of waste oils and alternative feedstocks

Enzymatic catalysis is rapidly positioning itself as a cornerstone of the low-carbon biofuel value chain. Second-generation biofuels that up-cycle waste cooking oil (WCO) through lipase mediated transesterification already deliver more than 94% conversion at pH 4.0 and 28°C, driving 60–90% cost savings over food-based biodiesel. Global capacity from this pathway is expected to reach 16 billion litres in 2023, aided by continuous-flow and ultrasonic reactors plus automated control loops that trim energy demand by 9–35%. Third-generation algal platforms (average lipid yield around 54.8%) avoid land-use competition but remain capital intensive, while fourth-generation concepts coupling synthetic biology with CO₂ capture are at least a decade from scale. Targeted protein engineering, such as high-throughput evolution of Aspergillus niger lipases, as well as modular plug-and-play biorefineries are accelerating commercialization. To unlock full potential, governments will need tightened WCO collection mandates, expand research and development incentives, and embed robust carbon pricing. With coordinated policy and technology deployment, enzyme-enabled fuels could cut particulate emissions by 45% by 2050 and anchor a circular, resilient energy system.

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