Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of microplastics and endocrine disrupting compounds in riverine environment

The presence of microplastics and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in aquatic environments raises concerns owing to their adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Predominantly originating from urban sources and anthropogenic activities, these contaminants enter rivers, accumulate in riverine environments, and contribute to habitat degradation, thereby posing risks to aquatic organisms and humans. Moreover, an understanding of the ecological risk, pollution loads and land-use influence associated with these pollutants is lacking, necessitating comprehensive assessment. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and sources of microplastics and EDCs in the riverine environment of the Selangor River Basin. This study also included an ecological risk assessment, estimation of daily pollution loads, and investigation of the influence of different land-use activities on the distribution of microplastics and EDCs in the Selangor River Basin. Thus, this study involved the optimization of a developed method for determining the concentrations of both microplastics and EDCs. Microplastic samples underwent an extraction process involving wet peroxide oxidation and density separation, followed by microscopic identification and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Targeted multiclass EDCs were quantified using solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS). Prevalent microplastic particles were detected in the Selangor River Basin up to 3.4 particles/L and 55 particles/kg in surface water and sediment, respectively. The most prevalent polymer compositions of the detected microplastics in the riverine samples included polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyester. This study also showed the predominant abundance of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 17α- ethynylestradiol (EE2), and 17β-estradiol (E2) in both surface water and sediment of the Selangor River Basin. Other compounds such as progesterone, testosterone and propranolol were below the method detection limit (MDL) in surface water, while only testosterone was below the MDL in sediment. Phenolic compounds such as BPF and BPA were observed at the highest concentration in surface water (up to 1098.40 ng/L) and sediment (up to 117.20 ng/g), respectively. The ecological risk assessment of microplastics in the Selangor River Basin revealed a low risk with a risk quotient (RQ) of 0.06, indicating that exposure to microplastics is considered lower than the threshold level of concern. This also suggests that the potential adverse effects on the ecosystem and aquatic organisms are anticipated to be minimal. Meanwhile, all EDCs indicated negligible risk with RQ < 0.01, except for EE2 and E2, which had RQ values ≥ 1 (high risk). This emphasizes the need for immediate regulatory attention and further detailed studies to understand the implications, as these emerging contaminants could disrupt ecosystems and human health even at trace concentrations. Despite the low ecological risk associated with microplastics (RQ = 0.06), these findings underscore the significance of implementing measures to mitigate the risk of both microplastic and EDCs contamination in the environment. Based on daily pollution loads and land-use influence, the primary sources of microplastics and EDCs are urban areas, where various anthropogenic activities including industrial operations, residential development, agriculture, and commercial activities contribute to their release. These contaminants enter riverine systems primarily through wastewater discharge, surface runoff, and improper waste disposal, leading to their accumulation and potential ecological impacts. Therefore, this study provides essential baseline data, identifies key contaminant sources, and supports the development of effective strategies for managing and mitigating these emerging pollutants.

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