Gender gaps in higher education from the perspective of returns to education: a systematic literature review

Persistent gender disparities in higher education remain a global challenge, contributing to unequal returns on educational attainment. Despite substantial progress in women’s participation in higher education over the past two decades, their transition to the labour market continues to reveal persistent gender disparities. This study aims to examine gender-based inequities in educational returns between 2000 and 2025, specifically focusing on vertical and horizontal gender gaps in the labour market. A systematic review of 21 relevant papers was conducted following the PRISMA framework. Literature was sourced from multiple academic databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect, to investigate gender disparities in higher education and their implications for labour market inequality. Findings reveal that the vertical dimension highlights women's under-representation in senior positions within organisations, reflecting lower status. In contrast, the horizontal dimension underscores disparities in disciplines, resulting in lower returns on academic achievements, reduced employment rates, and diminished wages. Evidence from both dimensions demonstrates that inequality in educational returns is structural, indicating that existing educational interventions alone are insufficient to eliminate gender-based disparities in labour market outcomes. The study underscores the ongoing challenge of bridging the transition from education to employment, despite growing research on gender inequality in higher education. Addressing these inequalities requires integrated social and economic policies that target structural, cultural, and institutional barriers, ensuring that advancements in higher education translate into equitable labour market outcomes for women. By synthesising evidence across diverse contexts, this research provides both theoretical insights and practical recommendations for promoting equity in educational returns.

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